Is behavior indicative of a system of communication?

      What does behavior say about a species ability to communicate?  Almost everything.  We have already established that there is anatomical evidence to suggest that humans and neanderthals had if not the same a very similar vocal repertoire.  Whether neanderthals had the mental capacity is a much more difficult question to answer and one that is more heavily debated.  We do know however, that middle and upper paleolithic humans and neanderthals had some very similar behavioral characteristics; "they were producing the same Levantine Mousterian tools, using them in similar ways, hunting the same medium-to-large-sized animals, and behaving in other similar ways, such as burying of the dead and building hearths"(Lieberman, Shea 1994).  Researchers from many fields of science agree that language and our system of communication was essential to the evolution of humans and it enabled our complex behavior.  If the behavior of neanderthals was very similar to that of humans during the time in which they both existed, it inferentially makes sense to believe that neanderthals had some system of communication that would resemble the system used by humans.

The Neanderthal Museum in Mettman, Germany

Lieberman, Daniel E., and Shea, John J.  “Behavorial Differences Between Archaic and Modem Humans in the Levantine Mousterian.”  American Anthropologist.  96(2) (1994):  300-332.  Anthrosource.  Web.  30 Sep. 2012.   

Were the Vocal Tracts of Neanderthals and H. sapiens Similar?

            Like many aspects of archaeology, it is difficult to find a consensus on the answer to this question.  It has already been established that the hyoid bones of both species are remarkably similar, but apart from hyoid there are other factors that could contribute to a much different anatomy within the vocal tract.  There are many aspects of speech related to the placement of and the attachment of muscles and ligaments to the hyoid that could alter the capacity for sound production, but based on the Kebara 2 hyoid these features appear to be similar to modern humans. (Arensberg, et. al, 1990)  In fact, there are very few differences between the vocal tract of the kebara 2 specimen and modern H. sapiens.  This alone does not prove that neanderthals could speak like the humans of their time, because having a vocal tract does not necessarily mean that an individual had the brain capacity to formulate a language.

 Arensburg, B., L.A. Schepartz, A.M. Tillier, B. Vandermeersch, Y. Rak.  “A Reappraisal of the Anatomical Basis for Speech in            Middle Paleolithic Hominids.”  American Journal  of Physical Anthropology.  83 (1990): 137-146.  Wiley Online Library.  Web.  30 Sep.       2012.

When did language evolve?

      The answer to this question has been sought by archaeologist and paleoarchaeologists for quite some time but, even more so since the discovery of the Neaderthal hyoid at Kebara 2, Israel.  While there is no agreed upon or definite answer to this question there are several hypotheses.  One of which suggests that language occurred very rapidly with a genetic mutation that re-wired the brain and brought about many behavioral changes.  This mutation is believed to have occurred around 50,000 years ago.  An alternate hypothesis argues that the innovation of language came about with the beginning of the genus homo.  In a sense both of these hypotheses could be correct.  It is possible that language existed with the earliest members of the Homo genus and then became more complex due to a re-wiring of the brain.  Given that both H. sapiens and H. Neanderthalensis likely evolved from H. ergaster, it is likely that H. ergaster had a hyoid that was similar to both, although there is no fossil evidence to prove this.

Johanson, Donald, and Blake Edgar.  From Lucy to Language.  New York: Simon &                                                           

Schuster, 2006.  Print. 

What is so significant about the hyoid bone, especially in regards to speech production?

     The hyoid bone is located on the anterior (face side) side of the neck in front of the third vertabra, just above the lump of cartilage known as the Adam's apple.  The hyoid bone is very interesting in that it is the only bone in the human body that is not connected to any other bones.  Wikipedia summarizes the function of the hyoid bone nicely while also adding some insight to the question at hand:

  “The hyoid bone is present in many mammals, it allows a wider range of tongue, pharyngeal and laryngeal movements by bracing these structures alongside each other in order to produce variation.[4] Its descent in living creatures is not unique to Homo sapiens, and does not allow the production of a wide range of sounds: with a lower larynx, men do not produce a wider range of sounds than women and 2 year old babies. Moreover the larynx position of Neanderthal was not a handicap to producing speech sounds.[5] The discovery of a modern-looking hyoid bone of a Neanderthal man in the Kebara Cave in Israel led its discoverers to argue that the Neanderthals had a descended larynx, and thus human-like speech capabilities.[6] However, other researchers have claimed that the morphology of the hyoid is not indicative of the larynx's position.[7] It is necessary to take into consideration the skull base, the mandible and the cervical vertebrae and a cranial reference plane.[8][9]”

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gray1194.png

The most famous hyoid ever!!

  In 1983, a startling discovery was made at Kebara 2 cave, Israel;  the hyoid bone from a partially complete neanderthal burial.   Because Kebara 2 was occupied by both H. sapiens and neanderthals, and because it is morphologically similar researchers initially thought it belonged to H. sapiens, only  later find that it belonged to a neanderthal.  This discovery was so shocking because it was the first hyoid bone of a neanderthal (or any nonhuman hominid) ever found. which subsequently led many to question the linguistic capabilities of not only neanderthals but also other nonhuman hominids.  The kebara 2 hyoid filled a huge gap in the knowledge of early human vocal tracts.

The Hyoid that shocked the world.
Homo neanderthalensis hyoid bone from Kebara, Israel.
Johanson, Donald, and Blake Edgar.  From Lucy to Language.  New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006.  Print. 

What makes language possible?

       Language is defined as a system with external aspects relating to speech production and internal aspects involving cognition and symbolism. "The internal aspects include complex mapping and simulation of the world and consciousness (thought), while the external aspects include the expressions of the system shared between individuals in the form of gesture, vocalizations, or articulate speech (communication)" (Schepartz 1993).  The external aspects that are related to speech production are the brain and the vocal tract, each of which have necessary requirements.  The brain for example must have a minimum volume, the Wernicke and Broca’s areas of the brain, as well as surface and hemisphere asymmetries.  The internal aspects of the brain that are necessary for language are cognition and symbolism.  

Schepartz,  L.A.  “Language and Modern Human Origins.”  Yearbook of Physical Anthropology.  36 (1993): 91-126.  Wiley Online Library.  Web.  30 Sep.  2012.

Could they?

         Most people assume that language and speech are solely human traits.  Given the human-centric way of thinking that has pervaded many aspects of daily life, this thought is not too far fetched.  As humans, we like to think that we are, and have always been, the cream of the crop: the smartest, fastest, best suited creature that ever walked the earth, but a look into the archaeological record will tell a different story.  This blog hopes to provide a look into that record, to look what has been discovered, as well as some popular theories on the question at hand.

http://www.1inking.htmlhttp://www.100fd.com/2012/07/summer-of-what-are-men-really-thinking.html

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